Acadres Consulting

International Journal of Social Sciences & Economic Environment

GENDER ISSUES IN ENGENDERING SUSTAINABLE WATER USER ASSOCIATIONS: PATRIARCHAL CHALLENGES TO LEGISLATIVE STRATEGY IN SOUTH INDIA

K. Gulam Dasthagir*, K Arun**

*Professor, Department of Sociology, School of Social Sciences and International Studies, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4818-7030

**Senior Research Fellow, Department of Sociology, School of Social Sciences and International Studies, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, India ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0009-0005-4825-5920

DOI : http://doi.org/10.53882/IJSSEE.2024.0901002 Page No : 16-35

Published Online : 2024-06-30

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ABSTRACT

Aim of the Study: This article examines the impact of Participatory Irrigation Management legislation on gender inclusion in Water User Associations.

Methodology: Based on a sample survey and secondary data, the challenges in the participation and representation of women in Water User Associations (WUAs) are analyzed.

Findings: Participatory Irrigation Management though claims to be inclusive and democratic, when implemented, eclipsed by patriarchy, it tends to reproduce participatory exclusion of rural women in South Indian irrigation. Consequently, the greater the gender inequality in land ownership, the lesser the women's participation in meetings and elections and the greater the likelihood of gender discrimination in Water User Associations.

Practical Implications: The absence of gender quotas in membership and representation leads to the exclusion of women in Water User Associations.

Originality: This study strengthens the contemporary feminist discourse by arguing for gender inclusion and gender mainstreaming in Participatory Irrigation Management.

Keywords: Participatory Irrigation Management, Water User Associations, Participatory Exclusion, Legislation, Gender Assessment, Tamil Nadu.

REFERENCES

Agarwal, B. (2001). Participatory exclusions, community forestry, and gender: An analysis for South Asia and a conceptual framework. World Development, 29(10), 1623-1648. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00066-3
Akpabio, E. M., Mwathunga, E., & Rowan, J. S. (2021). Understanding the challenges governing Malawi’s water, sanitation and hygiene sector. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 38(3), 426–446. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2021.1897947
Akpabio, E. M., Wilson, N. A. U., Umoh, E. C., Udofia, E. I. S., Udo, I. I., Elijah, E., ... & Ema, E. O. (2024). Women, water and access: inscribing gender power in and through a place. Journal of Water and Health, jwh2024362. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.362
Anderson, C. L., Reynolds, T. W., Biscaye, P., Patwardhan, V., & Schmidt, C. (2020). Economic benefits of empowering women in agriculture: Assumptions and evidence. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(2), 193–208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1769071
Asian Development Bank. (2008). Irrigation Management Transfer: Strategies and Best Practices. Sage.
Bekele, R. D., & Mekonnen, D. (2022). Local empowerment and irrigation devolution in Ethiopia. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 38(6), 1062-1088. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2021.1936465
Binoy, K., Yadav, A. K., & Vardhan, V. V. (2023). A multi-stakeholder approach to implementing water stewardship: The case of the Ghod River basin. Irrigation and Drainage, 72(5), 1298–1305. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2836
Bryan, E., & Mekonnen, D. (2023). Does small-scale irrigation provide a pathway to women's empowerment? Lessons from Northern Ghana. Journal of Rural Studies, 97, 474-484. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.12.035
Chattopadhyay, S., De, I., Mishra, P., Parey, A., & Dutta, S. (2022). Participatory water institutions and sustainable irrigation management: evidence and lessons from West Bengal, India. Water Policy, 24(4), 667–684. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2022.306
Cooper, B., Crase, L., Burton, M., & Pham, H. D. (2023). Survey data on preferences and attitudes towards participatory irrigation management in India and Pakistan. Scientific Data, 10(1), 152. Retrieved From: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02052-y
Dasthagir, K. G. (2012). Fencing women in water user associations: an appraisal of gender strategy for participatory irrigation management in Tamil Nadu [India]. IWMI-Tata Water Policy Research Highlight. Retrieved From: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/4ae16c26-3b89-498b-b771-e5ff3aac4e1f
Dasthagir, K. G. (2013). Women Inclusion in Participatory Irrigation Management: Predilections and Predicaments. IASSI-Quarterly, 32(4), 45-59. Retrieved From: https://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:iassi&volume=32&issue=4&article=003
Dasthagir, K. G. (2018). Engendered Rights beneath Gendered Irrigation Institutions : An Analysis of Masculine Domination that Eclipses Empowerment of Women Farmers in Pani Panchayats. Social Action: A Quarterly Review of Social Trends, 68(1), 20-33.
Dasthagir, K. G., & Wijepala, U.S. (2018). Changing gender contours in managing irrigated agriculture: Reexamining the patriarchal cliche in rural Sri Lanka. Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities, 5(4), 69–72. Retrieved From: https://www.shanlaxjournals.in/journals/index.php/sijash/article/view/855
Dasthagir, K. G. (2021). Exclusion of Women Beneath Patriarchal Enclaves in Participatory Irrigation Management in South India. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 28(3), 408-425. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/09715215211030409
Dasthagir, K.G. (2022). Can Farmer's Management of Irrigation Systems Act Unfasten Agrarian Gender Order? Some Evidence from Tamil Nadu. In: Niumai, A., Chauhan, A. (eds) Gender, Law and Social Transformation in India. Springer, Singapore. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8020-6_14
Dasthagir, K. G. (2024 a). Water Governance in Puducherry. South Asia Research, 44(1), 90-106.
Dasthagir, K. G. (2024 b). Hydraulic bureaucracy and irrigation management transfer: analysing the efficacy of two models in South-India. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2024.2341992
Dasthagir K. G., & Arun, K. (2024 a). Constitution of Neoliberal Governmentality in Participatory Irrigation Management: Implications and Outcomes in India. Review Journal of Philosophy and Social Science , 33(1), 77-84.
Dasthagir K. G., & Arun, K. (2024 b). Role of Participatory Institutions in Reframing Patriarchy in Rural Water Governance: Some Evidence from South Indian Irrigation. Contemporary Social Sciences, 33(1), 190-200.
De Brauw, A., Kramer, B., & Murphy, M. (2021). Migration, labor and women’s empowerment: Evidence from an agricultural value chain in Bangladesh. World Development, 142, 105445. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105445
Fletcher, A. J., & Kubik, W. (Eds.). (2016). Women in Agriculture Worldwide: Key issues and practical approaches. Routledge. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315546780
Fredriksson, P. G., & Gupta, S. K. (2023). Irrigation and gender roles. Journal of Development Economics, 163, 103076. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2023.103076
Hamlet, L., Gutierrez, V. B., Soto, A., & Dickin, S. (2022). Barriers to women's participation, leadership, and empowerment in community-managed water and sanitation in rural Bolivia. H2Open Journal, 5(3), 532-548. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/h2oj.2022.021
Hirpara Paras , Rank P.H , Patel R. J , Vekariya P. B , Parmar H. V , Rank H. D , Patel K. C & Sojitra M.A. (2024, March). Participatory irrigation management: empowering communities for sustainable agriculture. Agri-India TODAY, 4(3), 104-112. Retrieved From: https://www.agriindiatoday.in/Volume%2004-Issue%2003-March%202024.pdf.
Hooja, R. (2006). Management of Water for Agriculture: Irrigation, Watersheds, and Drainage. Rawat Publications. Retrieved From: https://www.amazon.in/Management-Water-Agriculture-Irrigation-Watersheds/dp/8170338867
Kanda, E. K., & Lutta, V. O. (2022). The status and challenges of a modern irrigation system in Kenya: A systematic review. Irrigation and Drainage, 71, 27-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2700
Kelkar, M. (2007). Mainstreaming gender in agricultural research and extension: How do we move beyond efficiency arguments. Women’s livelihood rights: Recasting citizenship for development. Sage Publications.
Khandker, V., Gandhi, V. P., & Johnson, N. (2020). Gender perspective in water management: The involvement of women in participatory water institutions of Eastern India. Water, 12(1), 196. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12010196
Koo-Oshima, S. (2023). International actions in spurring innovation in agriculture water management. Irrigation and Drainage, 72(5), 1241-1244. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2861
Kulkarni, S. (2007). Women and water policy: Issues and alternatives. Women’s livelihood rights: Recasting citizenship for development, 243-262.
Kulkarni, S., Ahmed, S., Datar, C., Bhat, S., Mathur, Y., & Makhwana, D. (2008). Water rights as women's rights?: assessing the scope for women's empowerment through decentralized water governance in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Retrieved From: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Water-rights-as-women's-rights-%3A-assessing-the-for-Kulkarni-Ahmed/d0cb3b29b76945a2a9142c6e59b6dfa8a294bdf0
Kulkarni, S. (2011). Women and decentralized water governance: Issues, challenges and the way forward. Economic and Political Weekly, 64-72.
Malo, M. (2020, October). Role of women in agriculture. Agriallis, 2(10),1-6. Retrieved From: http://agriallis.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/ROLE-OF-WOMEN-IN-AGRICULTURE.pdf.
Manero, A., & Wheeler, S. A. (2022). Perceptions of Tanzanian smallholder irrigators on impact pathways between water equity and socioeconomic inequalities. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 38(1), 80-107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1866506
Oluniyi, E. O., & Bala, M. S. (2021). Irrigation management in Nigeria: Lessons from the Kano River irrigation scheme. Irrigation and Drainage, 70(3), 517-523. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2586
Pandya, A. B. (2023). Towards sustainable agricultural water management. Irrigation and Drainage, 72(4), 1188-1191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2893
Phali, L., Mudhara, M., Ferrer, S., & Makombe, G. (2022). Household level perceptions of governance in smallholder irrigation schemes in KwaZulu-Natal Province. Irrigation and Drainage, 71(2), 394-405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2659
Rao, N. (2011, September). Women’s access to land: An Asian perspective. In Expert paper prepared for the UN Group Meeting ‘Enabling Rural Women’s Economic Empowerment: Institutions, Opportunities and Participation’. Accra, Ghana (20-23). Retrieved From: https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw56/egm/Rao-EP-3-EGM-RW-30Sep-2011.pdf
Roy, K. C., & Tisdell, C. A. (2000). Property Rights in Women's Empowerment in Rural India: A Review. Retrieved From: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/100038?ln=en&v=pdf
Salgado, R., Salvatierra, J. I., Mitre, C., Prieto Garra, D., Angella, G. A., Arriaza, M., & Mateos, L. (2021). Irrigation management transfer: the experience of the Río Dulce irrigation scheme, Argentina. Irrigation and Drainage, 70(4), 845-860. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2572
Sedegah, D. D., Agyekum, M. W., & Kyeremeh, B. (2023). Local level water conservation and management practices in rural communities: A case study in Dormaa Municipality, Bono Region, Ghana. Irrigation and Drainage, 72(4), 1095-1108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2849
Singh, M., Liebrand, J., & Joshi, D. (2014). Cultivating “success” and “failure” in policy: participatory irrigation management in Nepal. Development in Practice, 24(2), 155-173. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2014.885494
Sinha, R., Dadson, S., & Hope, R. (2022). Does subjective well-being matter when assessing the impacts of irrigation infrastructure? Empirical evidence from Madhya Pradesh, India. Irrigation and Drainage, 71, 155-168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2711
Smur, G., Teka, K., & Teklehaimanot, A. (2021). Small scale–irrigated agriculture empowered women-headed households in Tigray, Ethiopia. Irrigation and Drainage, 70(4), 900-908. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2550
Suhardiman, D., Raut, M., Pradhan, P., & Meinzen-Dick, R. (2023). Irrigation systems management in Nepal: women’s strategies in response to migration-induced challenges. Water Alternatives, 16(1), 244-264. Retrieved From: https://www.water-alternatives.org/index.php/alldoc/articles/vol16/v16issue1/687-a16-1-4/file
The UN Water Report 2021: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000375724. Accessed 27-04-2024.
Van Koppen, B., Hope, L., & Colenbrander, W. (2013). Gender aspects of smallholder private groundwater irrigation in Ghana and Zambia. Water International, 38(6), 840-851. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2013.843844
Yousefi, A., Knieper, C., & Pahl-Wostl, C. (2024). State-centric water governance and ineffective coordination: developing a context-sensitive assessment in Iran’s rentier state. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 1-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2024.2310817

Cite this article as : Dasthagir K. G. & Arun K. (2024), “Gender Issues in Engendering Sustainable Water User Associations: Patriarchal Challenges to Legislative Strategy in South India”, International Journal of Social Sciences & Economic Environment, Vol. 9, Issue1, 2024, pp 16-35, DOI: http://doi.org/10.53882/IJSSEE.2024.0901002

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REFERENCES

Agarwal, B. (2001). Participatory exclusions, community forestry, and gender: An analysis for South Asia and a conceptual framework. World Development, 29(10), 1623-1648. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00066-3
Akpabio, E. M., Mwathunga, E., & Rowan, J. S. (2021). Understanding the challenges governing Malawi’s water, sanitation and hygiene sector. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 38(3), 426–446. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2021.1897947
Akpabio, E. M., Wilson, N. A. U., Umoh, E. C., Udofia, E. I. S., Udo, I. I., Elijah, E., ... & Ema, E. O. (2024). Women, water and access: inscribing gender power in and through a place. Journal of Water and Health, jwh2024362. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.362
Anderson, C. L., Reynolds, T. W., Biscaye, P., Patwardhan, V., & Schmidt, C. (2020). Economic benefits of empowering women in agriculture: Assumptions and evidence. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(2), 193–208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1769071
Asian Development Bank. (2008). Irrigation Management Transfer: Strategies and Best Practices. Sage.
Bekele, R. D., & Mekonnen, D. (2022). Local empowerment and irrigation devolution in Ethiopia. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 38(6), 1062-1088. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2021.1936465
Binoy, K., Yadav, A. K., & Vardhan, V. V. (2023). A multi-stakeholder approach to implementing water stewardship: The case of the Ghod River basin. Irrigation and Drainage, 72(5), 1298–1305. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2836
Bryan, E., & Mekonnen, D. (2023). Does small-scale irrigation provide a pathway to women's empowerment? Lessons from Northern Ghana. Journal of Rural Studies, 97, 474-484. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.12.035
Chattopadhyay, S., De, I., Mishra, P., Parey, A., & Dutta, S. (2022). Participatory water institutions and sustainable irrigation management: evidence and lessons from West Bengal, India. Water Policy, 24(4), 667–684. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2022.306
Cooper, B., Crase, L., Burton, M., & Pham, H. D. (2023). Survey data on preferences and attitudes towards participatory irrigation management in India and Pakistan. Scientific Data, 10(1), 152. Retrieved From: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-023-02052-y
Dasthagir, K. G. (2012). Fencing women in water user associations: an appraisal of gender strategy for participatory irrigation management in Tamil Nadu [India]. IWMI-Tata Water Policy Research Highlight. Retrieved From: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/4ae16c26-3b89-498b-b771-e5ff3aac4e1f
Dasthagir, K. G. (2013). Women Inclusion in Participatory Irrigation Management: Predilections and Predicaments. IASSI-Quarterly, 32(4), 45-59. Retrieved From: https://www.indianjournals.com/ijor.aspx?target=ijor:iassi&volume=32&issue=4&article=003
Dasthagir, K. G. (2018). Engendered Rights beneath Gendered Irrigation Institutions : An Analysis of Masculine Domination that Eclipses Empowerment of Women Farmers in Pani Panchayats. Social Action: A Quarterly Review of Social Trends, 68(1), 20-33.
Dasthagir, K. G., & Wijepala, U.S. (2018). Changing gender contours in managing irrigated agriculture: Reexamining the patriarchal cliche in rural Sri Lanka. Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities, 5(4), 69–72. Retrieved From: https://www.shanlaxjournals.in/journals/index.php/sijash/article/view/855
Dasthagir, K. G. (2021). Exclusion of Women Beneath Patriarchal Enclaves in Participatory Irrigation Management in South India. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 28(3), 408-425. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/09715215211030409
Dasthagir, K.G. (2022). Can Farmer's Management of Irrigation Systems Act Unfasten Agrarian Gender Order? Some Evidence from Tamil Nadu. In: Niumai, A., Chauhan, A. (eds) Gender, Law and Social Transformation in India. Springer, Singapore. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8020-6_14
Dasthagir, K. G. (2024 a). Water Governance in Puducherry. South Asia Research, 44(1), 90-106.
Dasthagir, K. G. (2024 b). Hydraulic bureaucracy and irrigation management transfer: analysing the efficacy of two models in South-India. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2024.2341992
Dasthagir K. G., & Arun, K. (2024 a). Constitution of Neoliberal Governmentality in Participatory Irrigation Management: Implications and Outcomes in India. Review Journal of Philosophy and Social Science , 33(1), 77-84.
Dasthagir K. G., & Arun, K. (2024 b). Role of Participatory Institutions in Reframing Patriarchy in Rural Water Governance: Some Evidence from South Indian Irrigation. Contemporary Social Sciences, 33(1), 190-200.
De Brauw, A., Kramer, B., & Murphy, M. (2021). Migration, labor and women’s empowerment: Evidence from an agricultural value chain in Bangladesh. World Development, 142, 105445. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105445
Fletcher, A. J., & Kubik, W. (Eds.). (2016). Women in Agriculture Worldwide: Key issues and practical approaches. Routledge. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315546780
Fredriksson, P. G., & Gupta, S. K. (2023). Irrigation and gender roles. Journal of Development Economics, 163, 103076. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2023.103076
Hamlet, L., Gutierrez, V. B., Soto, A., & Dickin, S. (2022). Barriers to women's participation, leadership, and empowerment in community-managed water and sanitation in rural Bolivia. H2Open Journal, 5(3), 532-548. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/h2oj.2022.021
Hirpara Paras , Rank P.H , Patel R. J , Vekariya P. B , Parmar H. V , Rank H. D , Patel K. C & Sojitra M.A. (2024, March). Participatory irrigation management: empowering communities for sustainable agriculture. Agri-India TODAY, 4(3), 104-112. Retrieved From: https://www.agriindiatoday.in/Volume%2004-Issue%2003-March%202024.pdf.
Hooja, R. (2006). Management of Water for Agriculture: Irrigation, Watersheds, and Drainage. Rawat Publications. Retrieved From: https://www.amazon.in/Management-Water-Agriculture-Irrigation-Watersheds/dp/8170338867
Kanda, E. K., & Lutta, V. O. (2022). The status and challenges of a modern irrigation system in Kenya: A systematic review. Irrigation and Drainage, 71, 27-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2700
Kelkar, M. (2007). Mainstreaming gender in agricultural research and extension: How do we move beyond efficiency arguments. Women’s livelihood rights: Recasting citizenship for development. Sage Publications.
Khandker, V., Gandhi, V. P., & Johnson, N. (2020). Gender perspective in water management: The involvement of women in participatory water institutions of Eastern India. Water, 12(1), 196. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w12010196
Koo-Oshima, S. (2023). International actions in spurring innovation in agriculture water management. Irrigation and Drainage, 72(5), 1241-1244. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2861
Kulkarni, S. (2007). Women and water policy: Issues and alternatives. Women’s livelihood rights: Recasting citizenship for development, 243-262.
Kulkarni, S., Ahmed, S., Datar, C., Bhat, S., Mathur, Y., & Makhwana, D. (2008). Water rights as women's rights?: assessing the scope for women's empowerment through decentralized water governance in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Retrieved From: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Water-rights-as-women's-rights-%3A-assessing-the-for-Kulkarni-Ahmed/d0cb3b29b76945a2a9142c6e59b6dfa8a294bdf0
Kulkarni, S. (2011). Women and decentralized water governance: Issues, challenges and the way forward. Economic and Political Weekly, 64-72.
Malo, M. (2020, October). Role of women in agriculture. Agriallis, 2(10),1-6. Retrieved From: http://agriallis.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/ROLE-OF-WOMEN-IN-AGRICULTURE.pdf.
Manero, A., & Wheeler, S. A. (2022). Perceptions of Tanzanian smallholder irrigators on impact pathways between water equity and socioeconomic inequalities. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 38(1), 80-107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2020.1866506
Oluniyi, E. O., & Bala, M. S. (2021). Irrigation management in Nigeria: Lessons from the Kano River irrigation scheme. Irrigation and Drainage, 70(3), 517-523. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2586
Pandya, A. B. (2023). Towards sustainable agricultural water management. Irrigation and Drainage, 72(4), 1188-1191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2893
Phali, L., Mudhara, M., Ferrer, S., & Makombe, G. (2022). Household level perceptions of governance in smallholder irrigation schemes in KwaZulu-Natal Province. Irrigation and Drainage, 71(2), 394-405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2659
Rao, N. (2011, September). Women’s access to land: An Asian perspective. In Expert paper prepared for the UN Group Meeting ‘Enabling Rural Women’s Economic Empowerment: Institutions, Opportunities and Participation’. Accra, Ghana (20-23). Retrieved From: https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw56/egm/Rao-EP-3-EGM-RW-30Sep-2011.pdf
Roy, K. C., & Tisdell, C. A. (2000). Property Rights in Women's Empowerment in Rural India: A Review. Retrieved From: https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/100038?ln=en&v=pdf
Salgado, R., Salvatierra, J. I., Mitre, C., Prieto Garra, D., Angella, G. A., Arriaza, M., & Mateos, L. (2021). Irrigation management transfer: the experience of the Río Dulce irrigation scheme, Argentina. Irrigation and Drainage, 70(4), 845-860. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2572
Sedegah, D. D., Agyekum, M. W., & Kyeremeh, B. (2023). Local level water conservation and management practices in rural communities: A case study in Dormaa Municipality, Bono Region, Ghana. Irrigation and Drainage, 72(4), 1095-1108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2849
Singh, M., Liebrand, J., & Joshi, D. (2014). Cultivating “success” and “failure” in policy: participatory irrigation management in Nepal. Development in Practice, 24(2), 155-173. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2014.885494
Sinha, R., Dadson, S., & Hope, R. (2022). Does subjective well-being matter when assessing the impacts of irrigation infrastructure? Empirical evidence from Madhya Pradesh, India. Irrigation and Drainage, 71, 155-168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2711
Smur, G., Teka, K., & Teklehaimanot, A. (2021). Small scale–irrigated agriculture empowered women-headed households in Tigray, Ethiopia. Irrigation and Drainage, 70(4), 900-908. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2550
Suhardiman, D., Raut, M., Pradhan, P., & Meinzen-Dick, R. (2023). Irrigation systems management in Nepal: women’s strategies in response to migration-induced challenges. Water Alternatives, 16(1), 244-264. Retrieved From: https://www.water-alternatives.org/index.php/alldoc/articles/vol16/v16issue1/687-a16-1-4/file
The UN Water Report 2021: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000375724. Accessed 27-04-2024.
Van Koppen, B., Hope, L., & Colenbrander, W. (2013). Gender aspects of smallholder private groundwater irrigation in Ghana and Zambia. Water International, 38(6), 840-851. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2013.843844
Yousefi, A., Knieper, C., & Pahl-Wostl, C. (2024). State-centric water governance and ineffective coordination: developing a context-sensitive assessment in Iran’s rentier state. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 1-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2024.2310817

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